Causes Of The Industrial Revolution - 783 Words

â€Å"The market revolution was an overwhelmingly agrarian society.† â€Å"The country had the material and human resources but they had yet to be tapped.† Even though most Americans still lived in rural areas, most farmers were now part of a national and even international Market economy.† – (Lecture). â€Å"The role of the courts and the judiciary would be essential for the growth of the economy.’ – (Lecture). There were complicated forms of business organizations, overseas trade, internal expansion, and the buying and selling of land. The â€Å"government actively promoted industrial growth by erecting tariffs, creating new legal arrangements, and building schools.† – (Lecture). The acquisitions of territories contributed to the economic growth of the†¦show more content†¦They created their own union called Factory Girls Association. These women who were called â€Å"mill girls gradually moved into other occupations such as teaching, domestic service, or marriage.† – (Page111). By 1850, â€Å"the work forced included many recent immigrants.† – (Lecture). Immigrant labor was cheap. â€Å"The Industrial Revolution was making the United States dramatically wealthier by the year, and greatly elevated the average income.† However, the â€Å"increasing wealth was being distributed highly unequally.† – (Page 112). The wealthy in large cities looked for ways to show off their wealth. In New York City, Central Park was built so that the wealthy white could parade around in their horse driven carriages. The land known as Central Park was once owned by Free Blacks (2/3 of the population, and Irish People. However, it was taken from them for the white people to use. This land was called â€Å"Seneca Village, with a population 264. The land was seized under the law of eminent domain, through which the government can take private land for public purposes. Residents protested to the courts many times, against both the order and the level of compensation being offered for their land; eventually, though, all were forced to leave.† – (http://www.citymetric.com/skylines/new-york-destroyed-village-full-african-american-landowners-create-central-park-893) American became the land of opportunity for the white people and immigrants. Individuals who were Indian,Show MoreRelatedCauses And Effects Of The Industrial Revolution1649 Words   |  7 PagesThe Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution was an extremely significant revolution due to the monumental change into mass production. There were many different causes and outcomes of the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution impacted people and industries all around the world, prompting changes in many societies. For example, the Industrial Revolution initiated in Britain, but eventually found its way to America. After this, it impacted many other countries who desired the sameRead More The Causes of the Industrial Revolution Essay4968 Words   |  20 PagesThe Causes of the Industrial Revolution The causes of the Industrial Revolution were complex and remain a topic for debate, with some historians seeing the Revolution as an outgrowth of social and institutional changes wrought by the end of feudalism in Great Britain after the English Civil War in the 17th century. The Enclosure movement and the British Agricultural Revolution made food production more efficient and less labor-intensive, forcing the surplus population who could no longer findRead MoreCause And Assignment : The Causes Of The Industrial Revolution894 Words   |  4 Pages The Industrial Revolution is the biggest era for machinery. Some can argue that nothing wrong came from this revolutionary event, but others saw it as the beginning of some massive problems we still have today. Business boomed during this time and cities were crowded. Thousands of people rush to get to work in while others struggle just to get by. Jobs were hard to find in these cities because of the large population. Immigrants were al so being brought into these cities for what they thoughtRead MoreThe Causes And Effects Of The Industrial Revolution In Bangladesh1073 Words   |  5 Pageswhat the human race knows as the Industrial Revolution was born. Now, two hundred years later, with a repetition occurring in Bangladesh, what will this modern day phenomenon be known as? Similar to the English in the past, as the Bangladeshi economy continually develops, the living conditions of its workers are substantially depreciating. Because of the extremely low minimum wages, the needs and struggles of the working class are ignored and the negligence is the cause of the uproar by the workers.Read MoreA Short Statement Defining The Industrial Revolution1077 Words   |  5 Pagesshort Statement defining the industrial revolution The industrial revolution occurred in Britain in the late 18th and 19th centuries, and was the introduction of machinery. A statement around examining the industrial revolution with a focus on the lives of children and the impact the industrial revolution had on their lives In the Industrial revolution children had to work alongside with their parents mostly on farms for generations. It continued during the Revolution as children worked with theirRead MoreIndustrial, French, and American Revolutions: Common Social Revolutions?764 Words   |  4 Pageshistory there have been many important revolutions that have help to shape society as it is today. There are different causes, from political to religious, economic to social. Any revolution affects those in society, and creates changes for the people in the society. There are three important revolutions that took place in the late 18th century that changed the world for the better. The French Revolution, the American Revolution, and the Industrial Revolution all took place in the late 1700s. AlthoughRead MoreThe Industrial Revolution And The War Of 18121461 Words   |  6 PagesThe Industrial Revolution resulted in a shift from agriculture to industrial factories. In the United States, there were two ph ases of the Industrial Revolution. The first revolution, which happened between 1776 and 1789, was somewhat similar to Britain s Industrial Revolution and more political. The second phase of the American Industrial Revolution, which happened from 1860 to 1900, was not only political but also led to great improvements of the economy and society. The Industrial RevolutionRead MoreIntroduction Of The American Industrial Revolution1467 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction of the American Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution resulted in a shift from agriculture to industrial factories. In the United States, there were two phases of the Industrial Revolution. The first revolution, which happened between 1776 and 1789, was somewhat similar to Britain s Industrial Revolution and more political. The second phase of the American Industrial Revolution, which happened from 1860 to 1900, was not only political but also led to great improvements ofRead MoreIntroduction Of Industrial Revolution And The War Of 18121577 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction of Industrial Revolution in United States: The Industrial Revolution resulted in a shift from agriculture to industrial factories. In the United States, there were two phases of the Industrial Revolution. The first revolution, which happened between 1776 and 1789, was somewhat similar to Britain s Industrial Revolution and more political. The second phase of the American Industrial Revolution which happened from 1860 to 1900, was not only political but also was the great developmentRead MoreAdvantages of Industrial Revolution Essay1711 Words   |  7 PagesThe Industrial Revolution Prior to researching, I had a strong belief that the Industrial Revolution was a â€Å"dark† time period where children and poor workers would gather in a disease-ridden factory where they would work for several hours a day for little pay. Workers would cough harshly as the intense smoke filled the air. Every day, children would die from exhaustion just to fill the wallets of factory owners. But further research has convinced me that the Industrial Revolution was a benefit to

Communication Is The Single Most Effective Method Of...

Introduction Communication is the single most effective method of sharing information. Communication is the transfer of information from one individual to another or from leadership to subordinates to convey a message that requires a response or following from the other. Effective communication provides guidance to the workforce. In an organization, communication may be employed to give direction about how a task should be done, or it may be to convey the organizations mission and value to affect the organization’s culture. Specifically, in a health care organization, clear, concise communication is essential to design a comprehensive care plan with patients and to coordinate care amongst health care professionals. Therefore, in this paper the author will discuss the consequences and cost of ineffective communication in a health care organization then the author will formulate a strategic plan to improve communication within a health care organization by formulating a plan that includes formative and summative evaluation process. The audience for this presentation is hospital nurse leaders and executives. The culture of an organization must be reinforced starting with senior leaders. If senior leaders emulate the behavior of care, then staff and subordinates will follow. The effect of miscommunication Communication is a method of exchanging information between individuals. In a health care organization various types of communication is conducted. For example,Show MoreRelatedThe Usage Of Cellular And Wi Fi Systems1130 Words   |  5 Pagesmultiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) and direct device to device communications. This paper concentrates on the coexistence of cellular and Wi-Fi systems in unlicensed bands. It compares two of the more common methods for delivering cellular data traffic over unlicensed bands: traffic offloading and resource sharing. It also discusses a new hybrid method of transferring cellular data traffic, by combining both of the previou sly mentioned methods. Even though transmitting cellular signal directly over unlicensedRead MoreThe advantages and disadvantages of sales force automation.1374 Words   |  6 Pagesbusiness tasks of sales, including order processing, contact management, information sharing, inventory monitoring and control, order tracking, customer management, sales forecast analysis and employee performance evaluation(Thomas, M.S Michael, S.M 1996). This revolution that is sweeping through society is changing the nature of selling. For last 150 years, traditional selling process bases on the two ways communications, that is salespeople to customers, customers to salespeople. Such face-to-faceRead More Communications in Team Environments1284 Words   |  6 PagesCommunications Communication within a collaborative team can be a one to one, one to many, or many to many. Either way, communication is a vital component in maintaining a non-hostile environment of a collaborative team. The objective of communication is to share thoughts, ideas, and feelings in the most common and effective way as possible. Communication is defined as an exchange of information and the transmission of meaning. During the Industrial Revolution age, messenger verbally deliveredRead MoreThe Implementation Of A New System Or Technology1547 Words   |  7 PagesIn the case of communication technologies, current literature offers myriad reasons for exploring new systems. The literature studies different aspects of corporations that are impacted by a change in communication systems. Before any corporate makes a major change, different costs and benefits must be considered. The literature explored discusses the evaluation of the value, effectiveness and necessity of communication technologies for companies in operations, information sharing, internal and externalRead MoreThe Importance Of A Successful Leadership For An Organization1748 Words   |  7 PagesSuccessful leadership can be stripped down to a few simple, yet effective, roles that can make or break any supervisor or organization; and that is communication and teamwork. These activities seem so menial but even the most educated or exper ienced could lack the ability to use these correctly. In any field of work, lack of communication could be detrimental to the success you are striving for. For healthcare, you have to think about the patient as well. Lack of communicating from provider to patientRead MoreThe Impact Of Computer Networks On A Business Organization1622 Words   |  7 Pagesshare and exchange information among and between computer users. Through this, there is efficiency in operation and communication with a business organization and any other work place or institution. To share computer information and services, a company will need a network system that will suit both its employees and within the budget of the company. The faster and cheaper the network the more efficient it will be to the company. The use of LANs and WANs are the most common method used in trying toRead MoreUse Of Interprofessional Practice For Patients1623 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction Patient care today is far more complex than it has ever been, and one single profession cannot account for every physical, mental, social, or spiritual issue that may arise within an individual (Hilton, Ghaznavi Zuberi, 2002). In many health care systems, multidisciplinary care is used which involves a number of different types of professionals working alongside each other with separate goals. A more effective method, called interprofessional practice, is being researched which recommendsRead MoreImproving Efficiency And Effectiveness Of Learning1093 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction In the past decade, Information and Communications Technology (ICT) has developed its potential to enable national economic, social, and educational development. Online learning has been promoted as being most effective, more convenient, and providing increased opportunities for the lifelong learner (Olson and Wisher, 2002; Richardson and Swan, 2003). In Thailand, the government started educational reform the 2nd in the 2002 National Education Act (NEA). The purpose of this reform focusedRead MoreEssay on Communication1632 Words   |  7 PagesCommunication In organisation the employees communicate in different ways, every single day. They have talk in meetings, have group discussions and negotiate over the telephone, they write memos, emails, draft letters, reports, and sending faxes in emergencies. The organisation gives out the advertisement in TV, posters, in store advert and many more count as communication, Communication is most important base for develop the business, the communication with other department give theRead MoreCollaboration with Teammates to Increase Production815 Words   |  3 PagesCollaboration means working in pairs or group. It is important in information systems because by working as a team it can results in better work product. It is important that the team members review each other works, by reviewing other members works it they will be able to make improvements. Collaboration needs feedback and iteration. Successful collaboration usually produce a better work than individual. Importance of receiving feedback - Able to produce a better work - Learn from each other. There

A Practice in Skepticism Free Essays

Johnston makes very valid points in his article. The main thrust of what he’s saying is that even though there is so much hype about the crisis that is supposedly hitting our economy, journalists and everyone else for that matter have to take a step back and take a look at the bigger picture. We shouldn’t react immediately to all the warnings and doomsday announcements. We will write a custom essay sample on A Practice in Skepticism or any similar topic only for you Order Now Don’t buy into the hype is what Johnston is saying. Take a look at what is really happening, assess for yourself, think critically about how certain changes impact the market and how these really play out. It’s not as simple as it all seems. Johnston’s arguments were very solid. He gave explicit examples from his own personal experiences with bank loans in order to get his argument across. He didn’t claim to be an expert and didn’t even try to convince his reader through hard facts. He simply stated the bank loan offers he received as well as the information he got from sources regarding banks. The entire article came across as a persuasion to the reader to go out and see for himself/herself the validity of what he was saying. ly panic and fret about the country’s economy. Rash decisions and even rasher investment in actions by groups that pretend to be the solution to the crisis are unwise. These principles apply not just to the present economic crisis but to all situations that one may come across. It’s not enough to simply know the facts and to accept the facts presented by others. A practice in skepticism is truly needed especially in journalism. When one is charged with the responsibility of disseminating valuable information to the public, discerning the real facts is crucial. One has to be skeptical until the facts have been logically pieced together. How to cite A Practice in Skepticism, Papers

Formative assessment free essay sample

â€Å"We use the general term assessment to refer to all those activities undertaken by teachers and by their students in assessing themselves that provide information to be used as feedback to modify teaching and learning activities. Such assessment becomes formative assessment when the evidence is actually used to adapt the teaching to meet student needs†. Black, P. Wiliam, D. The purpose of the educational process focus on students’ learning, and when students use what has been taught in real life situations, then it can be said that the students are learning and that the objective is being achieved. But, can a test determine this in a classroom? Can I state that my students are learning based on a multiple choice test at the end of a unit? The answers of these questions may vary according to the type of teaching method a person uses. If this person uses a traditional teaching method that only seeks learners’ knowledge accumulation, then he or she could say â€Å"yes†. These may include PowerPoint slides, talking, QA, discussions, writing and using a whiteboard or flipchart to collect and analyse information. Auditory learners’ may benefit from discussion, listening to presentations and questions and answers. Visual learners may benefit from whiteboard drawings and handouts. 1. 2Explain how approaches to learning and teaching in own specialism meet the needs of the learners Within the practical sessions of physical intervention, I always gave additional breaks if needed, particularly in the more tiring and exhausting exercises. If I saw an individual struggling to keep up or appearing tired, I would either bring the whole group back in for a demonstration, change the activity or give the whole group a break. Changing the groups around also helped students, so they didn’t become used to their partner’s or group’s way of working. Also towards the end of the day, when people were becoming tired, I would ask them just to walk through the practice and not do it at full speed, for health and safety reasons. Within a classroom setting doing a PowerPoint presentation if learners appeared tired I would change my teaching method to having a discussion or using a whiteboard or flipchart or doing an exercise in groups. 1. 3Describe aspects of inclusive learning Inclusive learning is about making sure everyone feels included and all learners feel safe. Tutors need to be aware and cater for diverse needs. Aspects of this include ensuring learners can find the venue, the tutor welcoming everyone, the use of ice breakers and everyone being included in deciding the ground rules. Learners should not be made to feel undermined, intimidated or not good enough. The Higher Education Academy world wide web page describes inclusion as:- â€Å"Inclusion applies to an arrangement where every students (including disabled learners) entitlements have been designed in from the outset, as opposed to integration which applies to the assimilation of students into a pre-existing arrangement. Integrating disabled learners involves making ad hoc changes to teaching, or providing individuals with equipment or other forms of support so that they can access what has not been designed from the outset with their needs in mind. Inclusive teaching will have been prepared in a way that is accessible for all learners, as far as possible. Consideration will have been given to the impact of teaching activities on disabled students and will aim to reduce the number of needless barriers they encounter. † Therefore it is the responsibility of the tutor to ensure the session is accessible to the needs of all learners without anyone being singled out. 2. 1 Explain how to select inclusive learning and teaching techniques I can select inclusive teaching techniques by being aware of my learners needs. If I am aware of any needs that they may have it will enable me to plan my learning and teaching techniques to suit every learner which will enable inclusion. I can select the best methods depending on the students’ needs. I will need to include learners in agreeing their individual learning plan so ensure it meets their needs. Ensuring the learners help write the ground rules will ensure everyone feels included. Also using an ice breaker assists learners to feel part of a group. I will need to consider the resources I use to ensure they meet the needs of the learners. It will be important to use a wide variety of resources when I am teaching, the main reasons for this is to accommodate different learning styles but also to help learner stimulation and interaction. Part of inclusive learning is for me to be approachable and accessible, so the students feel comfortable to talk to me. 2. 2 Explain how to select resources that meet the needs of learners Resources need to be appropriate for the learning outcomes and suitable for the learner’s needs or to be able to adapt it. A tutor also needs to consider if a resource is at the correct level of ability. Resources also need to be current and credible and of high quality. Tutors also need to consider their own ability to use the equipment and there may be budgetary constraints to consider. All resources need to meet the session objectives. If we consider the resource of YouTube videos within PowerPoint, some advantages to its use are:- †¢It has a visual impact †¢There is a wide range and choice †¢It can be up to date †¢It is easily remembered by many learners †¢It is accessible However, some disadvantages to using it are:- †¢Quality and sound can be distorted †¢Needs internet connection. Not always up to date †¢Need to have the knowledge of embedding it onto PowerPoint †¢Content may be removed from YouTube 2. 3 Explain how to create assessment opportunities that meet the needs of learners There are various types of assessments. These can include initial, formative and summative. Summative assessments are usually formal and carried out at the end of a course. Initial assessments are carried out before and at the beginning of a course to enable the tutor to gain information about the students, such as their current level, previous knowledge and reasons for doing the course. Formative assessments are carried out throughout a learner’s time on the course and are usually informal and enable a tutor to feedback. The aim of formative assessments is so that the tutor can observe involvement, knowledge and body language to assess a learner’s progress. Assessments need to be at the correct ability and level of the learners. There are various methods of formative assessments, which can include:- †¢Role play or simulation †¢Activities †¢Feedback sessions †¢Games †¢Case studies †¢Discussions †¢Group work †¢Presentation Assessments need to be linked to the objectives and included on session plans. Explain how to provide opportunities for learners to practice their literacy, language, numeracy and ICT skills Learners can practice their literacy and language skills by reading handouts and slides, writing in groups or on a whiteboard and generally listening and speaking within discussions. Going through terminology can also support learners with their language and literacy skills. Encouraging learners to email you with any questions they may have will provide them with opportunities to practice their ICT skills. Also if I am teaching a session on analysing challenging behaviour, I can provide data for students to analyse and graph. Homework could also be given to create the graph on the computer and then present it at the next session which will incorporate both their numeracy and ICT skills. 3. 1 Explain ways to engage and motivate learners in an inclusive learning environment Identifying the learners’ needs will help a tutor to be supportive and plan sessions to meet those needs will help the tutor create an inclusive learning environment. If a learner is completing the course because they have to, they may not be as motivated as a learner who wants to complete the course. A tutor needs to build professional relationships with the students, creating a welcoming environment. A tutor can motivate and engage learners by varying teaching approaches, giving praise and encouragement, treating everyone with respect, avoiding a monotone voice, making the session interesting and using breaks if and when needed (more frequent shorter breaks might suit the learners better than less but longer breaks). 3. 2 Summarise ways to establish ground rules with learners to promote respect for others Ground rules are used to lay down order, responsibility and accepted behaviours amongst learners. We set ground rules like ‘all to participate’ and ‘constructive criticism only’ to include all learners and to avoid unconstructive replies which may lead to a sense of being bullied. I could set ground rules by simply stating some common ground rules that I have chosen to my learners and write them up on the board for the learners to see, but Gravells (2012, p91) says â€Å"Ground rules should always be discussed and negotiated with your students rather than forced on them. † Another way would be to sit down with the learners on their first day and have a group discussion or break the class into groups and have the learners brainstorm their own rules and writing the suggestions up on a board and then democratically voting for the most appropriate rules. Alternatively in a similar manner each learner could each say a rule aloud and we could instate the modal rules. 3. 3 Explain ways to give constructive feedback that motivates learners Feedback can be verbal or written; formal or informal. Feedback needs to be descriptive, therefore not just â€Å"That was good†, but instead, â€Å"Your language and grammar is good†. A student needs to know what and how something is good, not just that it is good. A popular method of giving feedback, which makes it easier for a learner, is a feedback sandwich. It starts with a positive, followed by the negative, and then positive or developmental to motivate the learner. There should be no put downs within a feedback and it should be unbiased. Try asking the learner first how they think they have done.

Australian English Essay Example

Australian English Essay Example Australian English Essay Australian English Essay Strine: Stralyan Slang from Singlet and Stubby The question What makes us Australian has underscored Australian politics and culture since the Second World War. Is it the colour of our skin No; immigration means that 10% of all Australians are now of non-European extraction. Is it our culture Perhaps, but there are hundreds of different cultures co-existing in Australia, again, due to immigration, and if we were to take White Australian Culture as national, then how unique is it really in comparison to New Zealand, Canada, the U.K. and the like Ah! I hear you say, But what about our language Now thatâ„ ¢s something we almost all have in common. All right then, does our language make us Australian Not at all, it couldnâ„ ¢t be more uniform. We, as Australians, use the same English as one-and-a-half billion others worldwide. Or do we There are three important distinctions. The first, vocabulary, is our extension of the Language. The second, colloquialisms, is our modification of the Language. The third, pronunciation, is the accent with which we speak the language. According to its editor Dr. Bruce Moore, the newest edition of the Oxford Australian National Dictionary is anticipated to include more than 14,000 distinctly Australian words and meanings. Words from the Convict Era such as Swag, from the First World War such as Aussie and Furphy, from the Contemporary Era such as Removalist and Benchtop, negative words such as Bludger, positive words such as Battler and Larrikin, and the more recent: Bogan and Ranga. Bogan, meaning Foolâ„ ¢ or Hooliganâ„ ¢, first appeared in the 1980s. Bogan has since screamed onto the scene, replacing the former regional equivalents: Westie, from Sydney and Melbourne, Bevan, from Queensland, Chigga, from Tasmania, and Booner, from Canberra. Ranga, a derogatory term for someone with red or orange hair, derives from the word O-rang-utanâ„ ¢. It rose to fame with the Australian Television satire Summer Heights High. From the words mentioned above, Bogan and Ranga are two which can be described as slang. Fittingly enough, there is another slang term used to denote the very same slang it defines: Strine. The colloquialisms of our Language, known nationally as Australianisms, take three forms. The first, diminutives, are abbreviations on nouns such as afternoonâ„ ¢, breakfastâ„ ¢ and footballâ„ ¢. These turn into arvo, brekky and footy. A similar pattern can also be followed for other words like journo, from journalist, and hecky, from hectic, a noun for an aggressive, hard-drinking youth. The second, nicknames, are endearing variations on oneâ„ ¢s first or last name such as Whitey, from White, Johnno, from John, and Jezz, from Jeremy. The third form of Australianisms are incomplete comparisons, these include sweet asâ„ ¢ and, similarly, sick asâ„ ¢, expressing pleasure or approval. The Australian accent is just as, if not more, Australian than our strine or colloquialisms, and it would simply be unthinkable to barbeque a shrimp without one. From 1788 it developed haphazardly from a mish-mash of British and Irish dialects. None, however, of the first generation of Australian born children would have spoken the dialects of their parents. Dr. Bruce Moore: A speaker with some very pronounced dialect sounds might find it very much to their advantage to modify those sounds if they caused significant misunderstandings for the speakers of other dialects. He continues, many of the really distinctive dialect variants that existed among the speakers of their [the childrenâ„ ¢s] parents generation would have been eliminated. A process of dialect levelling would have taken place. Soon, Australian pronunciation splintered into three categories: Cultivated Australian, the accent of the well-educated, General Australian, the accent we recognise today, and Broad Australian, the accent of Strine. Cultivated Australian English, most similar to British Received Pronunciation, is now only spoken by 10% of the population and is on the decline. General Australian is spoken by 80% of the population and is a compromise between Cultivated and Broad. Broad Australian is spoken by 10% of the population and is the accent most commonly identified as stereotypically Australian. However, even within the category General Australian, there exist regional variations. The most passionately disputed of these is the gra-ph or gra-rph dilemmaâ„ ¢. In South Australia and Victoria the word graphâ„ ¢ is pronounced with a long aâ„ ¢ sound, like that which one might make at the Dentistâ„ ¢s, whereas in the other states the short aâ„ ¢ sound, like that in the word tapâ„ ¢ is pronounced. This dilemma also applies to words such as danceâ„ ¢, grantâ„ ¢, commandâ„ ¢ and so on. The long aâ„ ¢ sound is most similar to Cultivated Australian, whilst the short aâ„ ¢ sound is closer to Broad Australian. I, personally, find the short aâ„ ¢ to sound lazy and unsophisticated, but perhaps, because of our relaxed and laid-back nature, we just donâ„ ¢t feel the need to pronounce words correctly. This is certainly the case with words like waterâ„ ¢ and runningâ„ ¢ and others similar, which turn into worda and runnin, respectively; and why not After all, it is our Language. In 1987 the government report National Policy on Languages stated: Australian English is a dynamic and vital expression of the distinctiveness of Australian culture and an element of national identity. And, whatever the colour of your skin, whatever your culture, you would have to agree. Bibliography: Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Lingua Franca Australian English: Australian Identity. ABC.net.au. Web. 14 Mar. 2010. . Collins English Dictionary. Bogan Definition of Bogan by the Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia. Dictionary, Encyclopedia and Thesaurus The Free Dictionary. Web. 14 Mar. 2010. . Convict Creations. Language and Identity in Australia. Convict Creations Thinking Different. Web. 14 Mar. 2010. . Harvey, Peter. What Is Australian Culture | Peter Harvey |. Big Think. Web. 14 Mar. 2010. . Moore, Dr. Bruce. Power of Speech All Ours. The Australian | The Heart of a Nation. The Australian. Web. 14 Mar. 2010. . Urban Dictionary. Urban Dictionary: Ranga. Urban Dictionary. Web. 14 Mar. 2010. . Wikipedia. Australian English. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Web. 14 Mar. 2010. . Wikipedia. Demographics of Australia. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Web. 14 Mar. 2010. . Acknowledgements: Dr. Bruce Moore.

Using Verbs and Adjectives to Brighten up News Stories

Using Verbs and Adjectives to Brighten up News Stories Journalism students just getting started in the craft of news writing tend to clog up their prose with too many adjectives and lots of boring, cliched verbs, when in fact, they should be doing the opposite. A key to good writing is to use adjectives sparingly while choosing interesting, unusual verbs that readers dont expect. The following breakdown illustrates the effective use of adjectives. Adjectives Theres an old rule in the writing business - show, dont tell. The problem with adjectives is that they dont show us anything. In other words, they rarely if ever evoke visual images in readers minds, and are just a lazy substitute for writing good, effective description. Look at the following two examples: The man was fat. The mans belly hung over his belt buckle and there was sweat on his forehead as he climbed the stairs. See the difference? The first sentence is vague and lifeless. It doesnt really create a picture in your mind. The second sentence, on the other hand, evokes images through just a few descriptive phrases - the belly hanging over the belt, the sweaty forehead. Notice that the word fat isnt used. It isnt needed. We get the picture. Here are two more examples. The sad woman cried at the funeral. The womans shoulders shook and she dabbed at her moist eyes with a handkerchief as she stood over the casket. Again, the difference is clear. The first sentence uses a tired adjective - sad - and does little to describe what is happening. The second sentence paints a picture of a scene that we can readily imagine, using specific details - the shaking shoulders, the dabbing of the wet eyes. Hard-news stories often dont have the space for long passages of description, but even just a few keywords can convey to readers a sense of a place or a person. But feature stories are perfect for descriptive passages like these. The other problem with adjectives is that they can unwittingly transmit a reporters bias or feelings. Look at the following sentence: The plucky demonstrators protested the heavy-handed government policies. See how just two adjectives - plucky and heavy-handed - have effectively conveyed how the reporter feels about the story. Thats fine for an opinion column, but not for an objective news story. Its easy to betray your feelings about a story if you make the mistake of using adjectives this way. Verbs Editors like the use of verbs because they convey action and give a story a sense of movement and momentum. But too often writers use tired, overused verbs like these: He hit the ball. She ate the candy. They walked up the hill. Hit, ate and walked - booooring! How about this: He swatted the ball. She gobbled the candy. They trudged up the hill. See the difference? The use of unusual, off-the-beaten-path verbs will surprise readers and add freshness to your sentences. And anytime you give a reader something they dont expect, theyre bound to read your story more closely, and more likely to finish it. So get out your thesaurus and hunt down some bright, fresh verbs that will make your next story sparkle. The larger point is this,  as journalists, we are writing to be read. You can cover the most important topic known to man, but if you write about it in dull, lifeless prose, readers will pass your story by. And no self-respecting journalist wants that to happen - ever.

World Religions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

World Religions - Essay Example Path of desire is not condemned in the Hindu religion, but the problem with path of desire is its un-fulfillment, as there is no end to desires and wishes which lead to wanting more and more. The followers of Path of desire follow false happiness and chase illusive dreams. Even, if an individual were able to find success, soon he/she would realize that there are still better things in life to be achieved. Man often man desire true happiness and success, which can only be satisfied by following Path of Renunciation. Thus, Path of Renunciation refers to renouncing one desire in order to achieve some thing more important (Moksha). And one can reap the benefits of Path of Renunciation only, when one has achieved maturity in the Path of Desire and wish to go beyond one’s own pleasure and success through renunciation personal desires. It is only possible by becoming part of the community and fulfill the duty of contributing greater good towards society. However the peak of the Path of Renunciation is beyond community and desires, which is the ultimate liberation from matter to attain enlightenment. 2) What are the "Four Paths to the Goal" What is the definition of 'yoga' Discuss each yogic path and its attributes. The Hindu scriptures have mentioned four paths to achieve goal in life: Dhrama, the righteousness in life; Artha, the economic development; Kama, Sensual enjoyment, and Moksha, ultimate liberation and union with God (through yoga). Yoga is training oneself (mind) to achieve perfect state of mind and peace through a system of exercises. Each exercise prepares body for further spiritual awareness and unites the body and spirit for greater control. Yoga is meant to train the consciousness for a state of perfect spiritual insight and tranquility. A system of exercises practiced as part of this discipline promotes control of the body and mind." These exercises prepare body for a full on spiritual awareness enables an individual for complete control of ones actions. The first one is Karma-yoga, which starts with an understanding that man is bonded to actions, thus the purpose is to relieve oneself from these selfish actions. It does not mean giving up all activities; instead Karma yoga refers to the sacrifices being offered to various deities to attain material necessities, however at the highest level it means dedication of all activities to God only. The next form of yoga is Jnana which is meant to promote knowledge through study and thinking. It asks for minimizing the life activities in the belief that the pursuit of wisdom means a simple life. The third kind of Yoga is Astanga, which is divided into eight different stages called Yoga Sutras. The sutras discuss the super-states of consciousness and attainment of several mystical powers, such as the power to become smaller in size. However yogis are not to be fascinated by such mystical powers and instead keep the mind focused on God within. The last form of Yoga is Bhakti, which is meant for mature individuals Within modern Hinduism, Bhakti-yoga remains the predominant path towards spiritual fulfillment. It includes the external and symbolic

End of World War Two and Collapse of Soviet Communism Essay

End of World War Two and Collapse of Soviet Communism - Essay Example It is said or believed that world war two came to an end due to the surrender of the axis powers of which consisted of Germany and other countries that also fell on that bracket. The allies used all the possible means of ensuring that the war came to an end. The allies managed to outthink the Axis power because they were many and received support from other countries that were economically stable and powerful. Though the Axis power was very much power, the allies managed to out through their power due to the large masses or number of people that they could not manage to control. They also found support from other states that managed to support them by giving them the superior Weapons. There are those powerful countries that had been dormant for several years due to certain restrictions such as the doctrine that governed their states. It is therefore through the broken silence of these countries that the allies got privileged because all these countries turned against the Axis powers and gave the necessary support to the allies. The end of communism dint happen abruptly, it is something that happened slowly and gradually .it took some time and slowly but surely more people in East Europe started hating it and its oppressive nature.The very first cases of the rejection of communism begun in east-central Europe and one by one all those countries from that said region came out of the soviet union. More countries looked at the new set up that Gorbachev had put in place and they didn't like it.Gorbachev didn't want to use force anymore lest people criticized him and looked down at what he had achieved.No attempts of bringing back sanity among those countries of central and Eastern Europe happened since they were in charge of their own countries.Gorbachev had no power nor moral authority.

Mark & Spencer Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words - 1

Mark & Spencer - Essay Example The analysis has been carried out using Key performance indicators (KPI), which are essential in determining the nature of performance being shown by the company, has been outlined in the appendices. The balance scorecard and the strategy map formulated can serve as an effective guiding tool for the company, which when followed in a proper way, can be utilized to predict its effective future plan. This study contains suitable recommendations based on the key parameters used for the purpose of analysis which can serve as a benchmark for the company to evaluate its performance thereby comparing them to the performance of other peer organizations. The recommendations made can contribute significantly towards the identification of the company’s strength and weaknesses in the HR division and help it to bring about improvements in its financial and non-financial performances. In the end, critical discussion and evaluation has been done suggesting the usage of balanced scorecard anal ysis and strategy map. Table of Contents 1. Introduction 4 2. Vision and Strategy 4 3. Balanced Scorecard for Marks and Spencer PLC (Human Resource Division) 5 3.1. Financial Perspective 5 3.2. Customer perspective 6 3.3. Business Operations perspective 6 3.4. ... Having a worldwide presence, M&S offers varied line of products to its customers ranging from clothing; home ware and food retail (Reuters, 2013). The report will conduct a thorough analysis of the human resource division of M&S thereby identifying its vision and strategy. In addition to that, a balance scorecard and strategy map will be formulated from the Human Resource Division perspective depicting the alignment between the strategies adopted and their significance towards the company’s goals and targets. 2. Vision and Strategy The HR team of M&S deals with ‘people’ side of the organization which adheres to find the right mix of talented people to join them and then ensuring their happiness & growth alongside the growth of the company (Marks and Spencer, 2013). Their vision is to employ a rigid and disciplined workforce where the leadership team along with the workforce will ensure that all their tasks are directed towards the achievement of the strategic obje ctives (Marks and Spencer, 2013). Their focus lies in making the workforce understand their strategy, embrace it and motivate them towards supporting strategy execution. In addition, they also want to ensure the integration of a competent workforce (especially people holding the key positions) and imparting them the necessary knowledge and skills through various training programs whereby, the workforce can be of significant contribution towards achieving sustainable success (Huselid, 2005b). The strategies of M&S’s human resource division can be best explained by the HR architecture that they follow. Employing the right mix of qualified HR personnel whose competencies can be aligned to the needs of the business (Marks and Spencer, 2013).

Determinants in the Process of Knowledge Transfer

Determinants in the Process of Knowledge Transfer Knowledge was closely investigated by academic researchers for the last few decades. It is nowadays considered as one of the most important strategic assets (Winter, 1987) that contribute to the competitive advantage of the firms (Kogut and Zander, 1992); this perspective is associated with the knowledge-based view (Grant, 1996). Resulting from that numerous studies exist about knowledge. As Winter (1987) suggests, knowledge can be created, stored and transmitted (transferred), exploited and the ability to success in these activities represents the essence of the firm. Different studies consider these various stages. However, the process of transfer is very interesting to reflect on because it is precisely knowledge transfer that has been established by several academics as having a major impact on performance (Cohen and Levinthal, 1990; Osterloh and Frey 2000). Some literature analyzes the process of knowledge transfer itself (ODell and Grayson, 1998; Szulanski, 2000), and its determinants (Grant and Baden- Fuller, 2000), other its boundaries (Szulanski, 1996; Salk, 1996; Hennart et al. 1999; Dyer and Hatch, 2006; Heiman and Nickerson, 2004). Together the authors try to shed light on the stages of knowledge transfer and factors that can positively or negatively contribute to it. Despite the abundance of studies, some researchers like Wagner (2005) call for the investigation of soft issues such as absorptive capacity and culture in successful knowledge sharing. Moreover, different researchers (Inkpen, 2000; Mowery et al. 1996), studied knowledge in the context of a strategic alliance. Some studies convey the idea that this might be the most appropriate form of collaboration in order to share (transfer) knowledge because of several advantages (Grant and Baden-Fuller, 2004). Other academics, as Simonin (1999), define difficulties that alliances face in the process of knowledge transfer. Therefore it might be useful to combine these ideas and see what makes alliances being so unique and how knowledge can be transferred in these structures. This literature review is meant to integrate various studies to make a clear picture of what makes the transfer of knowledge successful in-between partners of strategic alliance by reviewing determinants of knowledge transfer, particularities of alliances and possible strategies to follow in order to achieve the transfer. Problem statement The problem indication brings us to delimitate the following area of research: Successful knowledge transfer in a strategic alliance Research Questions Since knowledge becomes an essential asset, and its manipulation might have strong impact on the wellbeing and performance of the firm, it is interesting to investigate the knowledge transfer. Our inquiry will be done by first looking at what is knowledge and its different kinds. Then the models of knowledge transfer (in general) will be considered to see how knowledge is shared, finishing with the factors that can impact positively or negatively (barriers) on this process, this includes the soft issues sited previously. Research question 1: What are the key determinants in the process of knowledge transfer? Strategic alliances are often used by firms to transfer knowledge. Several studies might convey the idea that alliances is the most appropriate form of cooperation in order to transfer knowledge, that is why in the second research question we are going to discuss characteristics and particularities of alliances that contribute to build a solid ground for knowledge transfer. Research question 2: What characteristics and particularities of the strategic alliance might shape the process of knowledge transfer in this form of cooperation? Perhaps the most practical issue for organizations involved in the process of knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance is the one that deals with practices to implement and strategies to follow for both partners. Therefore the third research question will deal with possible behavior and ways of doing that can facilitate the knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance. Research question3: What strategies and behavior could the parties of the strategic alliance adopt  (implement) to enhance the transfer of knowledge and cope with the difficulties alliance might face? Research methods This is a descriptive research that will be done in the form of literature review. The data sources are the existing academic literature in the field of management, strategy and organization science. The literature includes top journals such as Journal of Management Studies, Strategic Management Journal, Knowledge and Process Management, Academy of Management Journal Structure of the thesis In the second chapter the investigation will be done in order to gain knowledge of what could be the determinants of the knowledge transfer in general (without considering the context of the strategic alliances). To do this, first of all, knowledge and its different kinds have to be defined. Following that the review of the literature about the process of knowledge transfer itself will be made. Chapter 2 will end with the review of possible factors that can affect the process by whether contributing to its success or by creating barriers to it. In the third chapter we are going to take a closer look on the strategic alliances. Following the definition, the discussion will pursue in order to understand why certain researchers think that strategic alliances are the most appropriate form of collaboration between firms for the process of knowledge transfer. Moreover, in this chapter we are going to look if certain characteristics of the alliance can ameliorate the transfer (i.e. firms similarities, orientation, strategy, resources). The last research question will be answered in the fourth chapter by examining the possible strategies and behaviors that companies involved in the alliance could undertake to enable a successful knowledge transfer, while they might face several challenges. At the end, conclusions will summarize this literature review bringing up possible questions for future discussion and useful recommendations about knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance. Chapter 2: The determinants in the process of knowledge transfer 1/ What is knowledge In general knowledge is considered to be gained by observation, study and experiences. It is the mixture of values, context information, expert insight (Davenport and Prusak, 1998) that resides within the person. It can be accumulated and subjected to improvements unlimited number of times. It is difficult to distinguish knowledge in itself from data and from information. Knowledge is neither of these two. Data results from transactions and information is derived from data. Fransman (1998) clearly underlines the fact that knowledge is indeed processed information. In this sense it is also possible to say that knowledge is socially constructed (Pentland 1995): individuals produce knowledge by processing information through their intellect. They act on knowledge by their actions and going through experiences, meanwhile their perspectives and insights change creating the opportunity to proceed differently in new situations, when new sets of information are available (Quinn et al. 1998; Weick 1995). 2/ Types of knowledge Another approach to introduce knowledge would be to state its different kinds: tacit and explicit. The observation of the existence of the explicit knowledge goes back to Polanyi (1966). Later the number of terms used were substantially enlarged to: formal, verbal knowledge (Corsini, 1987), declarative knowledge (Kogut and Zander, 1992), theoretical kind of knowledge (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995), articulated or articulable knowledge (Hedlund, 1994; Winter, 1987), a know-why knowledge (Sanchez 1997). To Polanyi (1966) explicit knowledge is easily subjected to codification in a formal language (can be stated or written down). Winter (1987, p. 171) agrees on that definition by saying that this type of knowledge can be communicated from its possessor to another person in symbolic form and the recipient of the communication becomes as much in the know as the originator. Sobol and Lei (1994) identified two ways in which one can think about explicit knowledge. The first one in terms of communicability: it is easily written down, encoded, explained, or understood (Sobol and Lei, 1994, p. 170). Its also possible to think about this kind of knowledge in terms of possession: such knowledge is not specific or idiosyncratic to the firm or person possessing it (p. 170). Perhaps for this research the most interesting type of knowledge is the tacit knowledge because it is the one that largely contributes to competitive advantage of the firm. In fact, it was determined by several scholars (Delios and Beamish, 2001; Fang et al., 2007; Pisano, 1994) that tacit (as well as complex and specific) knowledge brings organizations to better-quality performance if its transfer was successfully accomplished. Also it is the type of knowledge that is considered to bring substantial competitive advantage by several academics (Nonaka, 1991; Grant, 1993; Spender, 1993). Polanyi (1966) wrote that tacit knowledge is non-verbalizable, intuitive and unarticulated. Consequently it is hard to replicate and share. Deeper understanding was brought by Nonaka (1994) and (Sternberg, 1994) who both support the fact that tacit knowledge is context-specific: it is a knowledge typically acquired on the job or in the situation where it is used (Sternberg, 1994, p. 28). Nonaka (1994) as other researchers also wrote that tacit knowledge is personal (Sanchez 1997), difficult to articulate, and highly linked with action (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995). Therefore, on the one hand tacit knowledge is very difficult to transfer but on the other hand this same characteristic makes it being a critical and strategic resource of the firm and its competitive advantage, because competitors can hardly replicate it (Grant,1993; Sobal and Lei, 1994). 3/ Models: How to transmit knowledge Before getting to discussion in which the transfer of knowledge involves strategic alliances, it is useful to look at the process itself. Several models attempt to explain the basics of knowledge transfer. Some of them identify key elements that play a role this process, other present stages and steps, finally some conditions are also acknowledged. In order to understand how knowledge is transferred it is possible to first look at the definitions in cognitive psychology. At the individual level, the transfer was defined as how knowledge acquired in one situation applies (or fails to apply) to another by Singley and Anderson (1989). The transfer of knowledge in the organizational context also involves transfer at the individual level because the evolution of knowledge merely occurs when individuals express the will to share their experiences and insights with others (Davenport and Prusak, 1998; Kim and Mauborgne, 1998). This movement of knowledge through various levels of organization from individual, through group, up to organizational was identified by Nonaka (1994) as the concept of spiral of knowledge creation. The same process as on individual level occurs also at other levels such as group, department, divisionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Here the transfer of knowledge is the process in which knowledge and experience of one unit (company, group or department) affects another. Szulanski (2000, p.10) supports this vision: Knowledge transfer is seen as a process in which an organization recreates and maintains a complex, causally ambiguous set of routines (i.e. knowledge and experiences) in a new setting (i.e. another com pany, department, divisionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦). Knowledge transfer can be regarded as process which is composed of basic elements. Szulanski (2000) identified them as: source, channel, message, recipient, and context. Obviously, source is the unit from which the message (knowledge) will flow to the recipient by the channel and the whole process will be considered in a particular organizational context which can be fertile (facilitates knowledge transfer) or barren (problems occur with transfer). In the same research he explained several stages of the process of knowledge transfer. The process usually starts by the initiation. Then comes the implementation phase divided into several stages: the initial implementation effort, the ramp-up to satisfactory performance, and subsequent follow-through and evaluation efforts to integrate the practice with other practices of the recipient (Szulanski 2000, p.12) Furthermore, ODell and Grayson (1998) elaborated six steps in the knowledge transfer. Primary the identification of important knowledge is necessary. From this point on it is essential to collect the knowledge systematically and then organize the knowledge. When knowledge has been organized it can be shared (transferred), but before the final stage of usage of knowledge to solve problems, it has to be adapted. A number of conditions of knowledge transfer were presented by Grant and Baden-Fuller (2000). There are three main conditions of knowledge transfer. Firstly, the transmitters knowledge must be capable of being expressed in a communicable form. It is effortlessly done with explicit knowledge, however tacit knowledge has to be made explicit with the help of an expert system or be shared trough process of observation and imitation (p.122). What is more, transferred knowledge must be understandable to the source and the recipient. Therefore both have to use common knowledge which can be expressed in terms of the same language, information technology skills and culture. Finally, the new knowledge transferred from the source to recipient must be capable of aggregation which means that it would be possible to add to already existing knowledge. 4/What factors can influence the transfer of knowledge (positive and negative) Several features may play a substantial role in the process of knowledge transfer. When looking at the literature the most obvious in terms of determinants of knowledge transfer, might be the type of knowledge that is transferred. Explicit knowledge is easy to codify and to transfer. Conversely, a large number of studies, like Grant (1996), report the negative influence of knowledge tacitness on its transfer. In general it is considered that tacit knowledge is very difficult to share because of the complexity of its codification (Reed and DeFillippi, 1990) and organizational embeddedness (Kogut and Zander 1992) and that it contributes to creating ambiguity which can most of the times create barriers to the process of transfer. Simonin (1999, 2004) proposed a model in which knowledge tacitness indirectly influences knowledge transfer through ambiguity; it nevertheless specifies the importance of knowledge tacitness as critical factor which makes knowledge transfer difficult. Academics like Grant (1996), Reed and DeFillippi (1990) and Zander and Kogut (1995) raise the issue of complexity of knowledge. Complexity may appear for example when different kinds of skills and wide range of knowledge (individual, team-based experiences, technologies) have to be shared. The more complex the knowledge, the more difficult it is to share. Reed and DeFillippi (1990) also considered the influence of the specificity on knowledge transfer. The term refers to knowledge which is related only to certain kind of transaction relations. Williamson (1999) defined specificity as the ease with which an asset can be redeployed to alternative uses and by alternative users without loss of productive value. From these studies it is now clear that tacitness, complexity and specificity impedes to knowledge transfer by creating ambiguity. According to Simonin (1999) tacitness has the greatest influence in this relationship, followed by specificity, which is much less significant and finally complexity. It seems that culture and willingness to share, elements often cited as factors that can influence knowledge transfer, are interrelated. Willingness to share is one of the key determinants of knowledge transfer; this means that one must be willing to share and the other one to receive. It is not always easy to let go from knowledge. As Bernstein (2000) suggests that willingness to share is influenced by identity because an individual might have a psychological ownership over the knowledge he possesses. Furthermore, Alavi and Leidner (1999) made a good remark about the fact that it will be difficult for organizations to share knowledge and integrate knowledge-based systems without primary having the information sharing culture (i.e. valuing information sharing). Davenport (1997) describes this as open versus closed culture. Very similar to the concept of willingness to share, Szulanski (1996, p.12) argued that lack of motivation also has to be considered as one of the barriers to the process of knowledge transfer because it may result in procrastination, passivity, feigned acceptance, sabotage, or outright rejection in the implementation and use of new knowledge. Szulanski (1996) also noticed another barrier of knowledge transfer. Absorptive capacity is one of the very well known elements that influence the transfer of knowledge. It is the ability to exploit outside sources of knowledge (Cohen Levinthal, 1990, p. 128) and integrate it by replacing old practices by new ones, which is not always effortless (Glaser, Abelson, Garrison, 1983). Chapter 3: Particularities of strategic alliances shaping the process of knowledge transfer Combining resources is the logical response to the harshness of nowadays competition. Other factors as the increase in customers expectations and the less strict regulatory barriers also led companies to form alliances (Gomes-Casseres 1994; Harrigan 1988; Kogut 1988; Nielsen 1988). However these are not the only possibilities alliances are able to provide. Alliances can be considered as one of the means for knowledge gaining and sharing, besides mergers and acquisitions. According to Inkpen (2000) there exist several possibilities for companies to transfer and gain knowledge: internalization within the firm, market contracts, and relational contracts. He considers individual strategic alliances as relational contracts that permit knowledge acquisition and transfer, suitable in the context where knowledge is complex and hard to codify, whereas market based transfers are considered to be more efficient for product related (embodied) knowledge. Number of other researchers also supported the fact that alliances permit firms to share knowledge and ultimately to learn from the partners (Grant, 1996; Hamel, 1991; Khanna et al., 1998; Kogut, 1998). Inkpen (2000, p.1019) wrote: Through the shared execution of the alliance task, mutual interdependence and problem solving , and observation of alliance activities and outcomes, firms can learn from their partners. 1/ Definition strategic alliance In the literature it is possible to find several key characteristics of an alliance. An alliance is usually created between two or more firms that cooperate together in order to achieve some strategic objective, create value that they would not be able to achieve on their own (Borys and Jemison, 1989) and pursue a set of goals (Harrigan 1988; Yoshino and Rangan 1995). Partners are complementary and contribute with their resources and capabilities (Teece, 1992); they are involved in a range of interdependent activities (Contractor and Lorange 1988>2002) and share benefits and risks of the alliance. Dussauge et al. (2000, p.99) described an alliance between two Knowledge Based Enterprises as: an arrangement between two or more independent companies that choose to carry out a project or operate in a specific business area by co-coordinating the necessary skills and resources jointly rather than either operating alone or merging their operations. Some academics consider alliances to be arrangements in which firms establish exchange relationship without joint ownership being considered as a form of alliance (Dickson Weaver, 1997); others consider equity alliances such as joint ventures, also be a form of alliance (Mowery et al. 1996). In this research all possible forms of alliances are considered: a non-equity alliance (co-operation without creation of new organization or exchange of equity); an equity alliance (unilateral or bilateral equity holding among partners without creation of the a new firm); a joint venture (new firm is created, involving joint resources, where partners share ownership and control) 2/ Why strategic alliance can be considered (by certain researchers) the most appropriate form of collaboration for knowledge transfer? Accordingly, of all approaches to knowledge imitability between a knowledge holder and a knowledge seeker, strategic alliances constitute perhaps the most adequate, but nevertheless challenging vehicle for internalizing the others competency Simonin (1999, 595). There are several forms of interorganizational exchange that enable firms to protect valuable resources including mergers and acquisitions, licensing and alliances (Coff, 1997). There are two kinds of knowledge explicit and tacit (Polanyi, 1966), therefore if two firms share knowledge, it will be explicit explicit, explicit tacit or tacit tacit. Licensing can provide a solution for the first two combinations. Yet, it is very hard to gain competitive advantage with explicit knowledge resources, because they might be sold to other companies. By contrast, competitive advantage occurs when tacit knowledge assets are combined, provided their ambiguity, complexity and inimitability (Barney 1991; Dierickx and Cool 1989). This is done through alliances or mergers and acquisitions. Conventional sale contracts, markets, mergers and acquisitions seem to be less attractive structures for knowledge transfer in comparison with alliances. Coff (1997) found that it is not easy to evaluate the value of knowledge based resources, primary because of their tacitness (Mowery, 1983; Pisano, 1990). Firms that want to acquire new knowledge will have to face uncertainty concerning its characteristics and difficulties to determine its quality and to be certain of the transferability of the knowledge held by another firm. Some researchers raise a concern about the fact that in some cases the firm that will acquire knowledge is not certain to be able to deploy it (Flamholtz and Coff 1994; Haspeslagh and Jemison 1991; Polanyi 1966; Zander and Kogut 1995). In this sense, alliance permits to mitigate risks of bad investments. The indigestibility problem of MA, quite the opposite of alliances, was discussed by several academics (Hennart and Reddy, 1997; Inkpen and Beamish, 1997; Dunning, 1997). Indigestible assets are those who come with valuable assets during the transaction (Nonaka 1994). In fact, for some of these assets (in this case knowledge) the aftermarket may not exist after the acquisition. Within an alliance the company does not have to pay for digestion of non-valuable assets and has access to important knowledge resources held by the partner. Reid, Bussiere, Greenaway 2001 (alliance formation issues) Grant and Baden-Fuller (2004) identified some advantages of alliances related to knowledge like possibility to achieve early-mover advantage and risk spreading. Early-mover advantage signifies recombining knowledge into innovative products in a quickly advancing knowledge environment. More precisely, this means to quickly identify, access, and integrate across new knowledge combinations. In this situation strategic alliances enable company to quickly access knowledge necessary for introduction of new products to market. Grant and Baden-Fuller (2004) wrote: The greater the benefits of early-mover advantage in technologically-dynamic environments, the greater the propensity for firms to establish interfirm collaborative arrangements in order to access new knowledge. A risk exists in terms that sometimes a company might be uncertain about the future knowledge requirements and knowledge acquisition and integration takes time, the investments are risky (Grant and Baden-Fuller, 2004): The greater the uncertainty as to the future knowledge requirements of a firms product range, the greater its propensity to engage in interfirm collaborations as a means of accessing and integrating additional knowledge. Powell (1987) also noticed that alliance formation diminishes the risk that knowledge will dissipate quickly. 3/ Which characteristics and capabilities of alliance partners can ameliorate the transfer of knowledge? Before considering the transfer of knowledge, it is important to underline, that both partners of an alliance are expected to possess valuable knowledge (Eisenhardt and Schoonhoven 1996). Ahuja (2000) considered such knowledge possession as opportunity for linkage-formation. He also identified three categories of valuable knowledge assets that are: technical capital (capability to create new products, technology and processes), commercial capital (supporting resources) and social capital (useful networks). Throughout the literature it is possible to distinguish some capabilities that are important for proper functioning of the knowledge based alliance: absorptive capacity, combinative capability, experience with alliances, suitable design for knowledge exchange, and choice of alliance structure. In numerous studies, absorptive capacity plays an essential role in the process of knowledge transfer and learning within strategic alliances (Lane and Lubatkin, 1998). Van den Bosch et al. (1999) wrote that it combined the evaluation, acquisition integration and commercial utilization of knowledge obtained from sources exogenous to the firm. Absorptive capacity is susceptible to evolve and augment through activity (Barringer and Harrison, 2000) because it is historical and path dependent in nature as was defined by Cohen and Levinthal (1990). Grant (1996) recognized that knowledge absorption capability can be influenced by: the degree to which the expert knowledge held by organizational members is utilized; the width of specialized knowledge required from firm members; the degree to which a capability can access additional knowledge and reconfigure existing knowledge. Defined by Kogut and Zander (1992) combinative capability refers to the ability of the parties of an alliance to extend, interpret, apply, current and acquired knowledge with the goal of generating new applications from existing knowledge base. Collaborative know-how affects firms ability to form a successful partnership and create a solid ground for knowledge transfer. Simonin (1997) refers to it as to ability to institutionalize organizational routines as a result of previous experiences. Pennings et al. (1994) supports that firms tend to reproduce the behavior from their past experiences. When firms have previous experiences of collaboration within alliance, they acquire knowledge that helps them to effectively design future alliances (Lyles, 1988) and develop superior capabilities at managing particular organizational forms such as alliances (Kale et al., 2002, p. 748). This experience permits avoiding various difficulties (Doz, 1996; Powell et al., 1996). Teece (2000) stressed the importance of the design of the firm to enhance performance and knowledge sharing. He identified distinctive characteristics of design in successful firms. Among these, entrepreneurial orientation and flexibility expressed in rapid responses to ephemeral market opportunities flexible boundaries (outsourcing and alliances). They were also characterized by their non-bureaucratic decision making and rapid internal knowledge sharing owing to the not really strict hierarchies. The choice of alliance structure should be determined considering the perspective of gaining valuable resources (knowledge) from a partner without losing its own (Das and Teng, 2000). Different views exist as to effectiveness of equity joint venture form of alliance for successful knowledge transfer. Several researchers find that this form is the most suitable for the transfer of tacit knowledge and complex capabilities (Kogut, 1988, Mowery et al., 1996). However, Das and Teng (2000) think that this structure is too risky for partnership based on knowledge-based contribution, and that it is more suitable for contributing property-based resources. Inkpen (2002) identifies five categories of antecedents of alliance learning: learning partner characteristics; teaching partner characteristics; knowledge characteristics; relationship factors; and alliance form. Two key characteristics of the learning partner, identified by Nielsen and Nielsen (2009), are important, namely collaborative know-how (same as previous experience of alliances) and knowledge protectiveness (Simonin, 1997, 1999). Protectiveness matches the concept of openness and the degree to which partners are protective of their knowledge. How well do the support the risk of knowledge leakage or spillover (Inkpen, 2000). Chapter 4: potential strategies and behavior that parties of the strategic alliance might adopt to enhance the transfer of knowledge and to cope with difficulties alliances might face Strategic alliances might face a number of difficulties. The first thing that comes out from the numerous literature on strategic alliance and knowledge sharing, is the fear of knowledge spillovers, that are assumed to be inevitable consequence of alliance involvement, despite the efforts companies make in order to protect their valuable knowledge assets (Inkpen, 2000). Therefore, it immediately comes to the issue of trust. In the late 90 a discussion was raised about the possibility that some firms use strategic alliance as a Trojan Horse in order to steal knowledge from its partners. This was especially thought about Japanese partners. However empirical studies do not find support for this hypothesis (Hennart et al. 1999; Mowery 1996). The literature elaborates on so called learning races (Khanna et al. 1998) when one partner (acts opportunistically) tries to gain more knowledge in the alliance exchange, than he shares. Hamel (1991, 86) described alliances as transitional devices where the primary objective was the internalization of partner skills. This creates a significant challenge for strategic alliance. To deal with with this issue, norms and systems can be designed; functional rules can be developed to structure partner engagement (QuÃÆ' ©lin, 1997). When little trust is involved, this may lead to knowledge protectiveness from one or both of the partners. Nielsen and Nielsen (2009) wrote that protectiveness not only may lead to uncertainty and conflict but it also reduces the amount of information exchanged. Determinants in the Process of Knowledge Transfer Determinants in the Process of Knowledge Transfer Knowledge was closely investigated by academic researchers for the last few decades. It is nowadays considered as one of the most important strategic assets (Winter, 1987) that contribute to the competitive advantage of the firms (Kogut and Zander, 1992); this perspective is associated with the knowledge-based view (Grant, 1996). Resulting from that numerous studies exist about knowledge. As Winter (1987) suggests, knowledge can be created, stored and transmitted (transferred), exploited and the ability to success in these activities represents the essence of the firm. Different studies consider these various stages. However, the process of transfer is very interesting to reflect on because it is precisely knowledge transfer that has been established by several academics as having a major impact on performance (Cohen and Levinthal, 1990; Osterloh and Frey 2000). Some literature analyzes the process of knowledge transfer itself (ODell and Grayson, 1998; Szulanski, 2000), and its determinants (Grant and Baden- Fuller, 2000), other its boundaries (Szulanski, 1996; Salk, 1996; Hennart et al. 1999; Dyer and Hatch, 2006; Heiman and Nickerson, 2004). Together the authors try to shed light on the stages of knowledge transfer and factors that can positively or negatively contribute to it. Despite the abundance of studies, some researchers like Wagner (2005) call for the investigation of soft issues such as absorptive capacity and culture in successful knowledge sharing. Moreover, different researchers (Inkpen, 2000; Mowery et al. 1996), studied knowledge in the context of a strategic alliance. Some studies convey the idea that this might be the most appropriate form of collaboration in order to share (transfer) knowledge because of several advantages (Grant and Baden-Fuller, 2004). Other academics, as Simonin (1999), define difficulties that alliances face in the process of knowledge transfer. Therefore it might be useful to combine these ideas and see what makes alliances being so unique and how knowledge can be transferred in these structures. This literature review is meant to integrate various studies to make a clear picture of what makes the transfer of knowledge successful in-between partners of strategic alliance by reviewing determinants of knowledge transfer, particularities of alliances and possible strategies to follow in order to achieve the transfer. Problem statement The problem indication brings us to delimitate the following area of research: Successful knowledge transfer in a strategic alliance Research Questions Since knowledge becomes an essential asset, and its manipulation might have strong impact on the wellbeing and performance of the firm, it is interesting to investigate the knowledge transfer. Our inquiry will be done by first looking at what is knowledge and its different kinds. Then the models of knowledge transfer (in general) will be considered to see how knowledge is shared, finishing with the factors that can impact positively or negatively (barriers) on this process, this includes the soft issues sited previously. Research question 1: What are the key determinants in the process of knowledge transfer? Strategic alliances are often used by firms to transfer knowledge. Several studies might convey the idea that alliances is the most appropriate form of cooperation in order to transfer knowledge, that is why in the second research question we are going to discuss characteristics and particularities of alliances that contribute to build a solid ground for knowledge transfer. Research question 2: What characteristics and particularities of the strategic alliance might shape the process of knowledge transfer in this form of cooperation? Perhaps the most practical issue for organizations involved in the process of knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance is the one that deals with practices to implement and strategies to follow for both partners. Therefore the third research question will deal with possible behavior and ways of doing that can facilitate the knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance. Research question3: What strategies and behavior could the parties of the strategic alliance adopt  (implement) to enhance the transfer of knowledge and cope with the difficulties alliance might face? Research methods This is a descriptive research that will be done in the form of literature review. The data sources are the existing academic literature in the field of management, strategy and organization science. The literature includes top journals such as Journal of Management Studies, Strategic Management Journal, Knowledge and Process Management, Academy of Management Journal Structure of the thesis In the second chapter the investigation will be done in order to gain knowledge of what could be the determinants of the knowledge transfer in general (without considering the context of the strategic alliances). To do this, first of all, knowledge and its different kinds have to be defined. Following that the review of the literature about the process of knowledge transfer itself will be made. Chapter 2 will end with the review of possible factors that can affect the process by whether contributing to its success or by creating barriers to it. In the third chapter we are going to take a closer look on the strategic alliances. Following the definition, the discussion will pursue in order to understand why certain researchers think that strategic alliances are the most appropriate form of collaboration between firms for the process of knowledge transfer. Moreover, in this chapter we are going to look if certain characteristics of the alliance can ameliorate the transfer (i.e. firms similarities, orientation, strategy, resources). The last research question will be answered in the fourth chapter by examining the possible strategies and behaviors that companies involved in the alliance could undertake to enable a successful knowledge transfer, while they might face several challenges. At the end, conclusions will summarize this literature review bringing up possible questions for future discussion and useful recommendations about knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance. Chapter 2: The determinants in the process of knowledge transfer 1/ What is knowledge In general knowledge is considered to be gained by observation, study and experiences. It is the mixture of values, context information, expert insight (Davenport and Prusak, 1998) that resides within the person. It can be accumulated and subjected to improvements unlimited number of times. It is difficult to distinguish knowledge in itself from data and from information. Knowledge is neither of these two. Data results from transactions and information is derived from data. Fransman (1998) clearly underlines the fact that knowledge is indeed processed information. In this sense it is also possible to say that knowledge is socially constructed (Pentland 1995): individuals produce knowledge by processing information through their intellect. They act on knowledge by their actions and going through experiences, meanwhile their perspectives and insights change creating the opportunity to proceed differently in new situations, when new sets of information are available (Quinn et al. 1998; Weick 1995). 2/ Types of knowledge Another approach to introduce knowledge would be to state its different kinds: tacit and explicit. The observation of the existence of the explicit knowledge goes back to Polanyi (1966). Later the number of terms used were substantially enlarged to: formal, verbal knowledge (Corsini, 1987), declarative knowledge (Kogut and Zander, 1992), theoretical kind of knowledge (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995), articulated or articulable knowledge (Hedlund, 1994; Winter, 1987), a know-why knowledge (Sanchez 1997). To Polanyi (1966) explicit knowledge is easily subjected to codification in a formal language (can be stated or written down). Winter (1987, p. 171) agrees on that definition by saying that this type of knowledge can be communicated from its possessor to another person in symbolic form and the recipient of the communication becomes as much in the know as the originator. Sobol and Lei (1994) identified two ways in which one can think about explicit knowledge. The first one in terms of communicability: it is easily written down, encoded, explained, or understood (Sobol and Lei, 1994, p. 170). Its also possible to think about this kind of knowledge in terms of possession: such knowledge is not specific or idiosyncratic to the firm or person possessing it (p. 170). Perhaps for this research the most interesting type of knowledge is the tacit knowledge because it is the one that largely contributes to competitive advantage of the firm. In fact, it was determined by several scholars (Delios and Beamish, 2001; Fang et al., 2007; Pisano, 1994) that tacit (as well as complex and specific) knowledge brings organizations to better-quality performance if its transfer was successfully accomplished. Also it is the type of knowledge that is considered to bring substantial competitive advantage by several academics (Nonaka, 1991; Grant, 1993; Spender, 1993). Polanyi (1966) wrote that tacit knowledge is non-verbalizable, intuitive and unarticulated. Consequently it is hard to replicate and share. Deeper understanding was brought by Nonaka (1994) and (Sternberg, 1994) who both support the fact that tacit knowledge is context-specific: it is a knowledge typically acquired on the job or in the situation where it is used (Sternberg, 1994, p. 28). Nonaka (1994) as other researchers also wrote that tacit knowledge is personal (Sanchez 1997), difficult to articulate, and highly linked with action (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995). Therefore, on the one hand tacit knowledge is very difficult to transfer but on the other hand this same characteristic makes it being a critical and strategic resource of the firm and its competitive advantage, because competitors can hardly replicate it (Grant,1993; Sobal and Lei, 1994). 3/ Models: How to transmit knowledge Before getting to discussion in which the transfer of knowledge involves strategic alliances, it is useful to look at the process itself. Several models attempt to explain the basics of knowledge transfer. Some of them identify key elements that play a role this process, other present stages and steps, finally some conditions are also acknowledged. In order to understand how knowledge is transferred it is possible to first look at the definitions in cognitive psychology. At the individual level, the transfer was defined as how knowledge acquired in one situation applies (or fails to apply) to another by Singley and Anderson (1989). The transfer of knowledge in the organizational context also involves transfer at the individual level because the evolution of knowledge merely occurs when individuals express the will to share their experiences and insights with others (Davenport and Prusak, 1998; Kim and Mauborgne, 1998). This movement of knowledge through various levels of organization from individual, through group, up to organizational was identified by Nonaka (1994) as the concept of spiral of knowledge creation. The same process as on individual level occurs also at other levels such as group, department, divisionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Here the transfer of knowledge is the process in which knowledge and experience of one unit (company, group or department) affects another. Szulanski (2000, p.10) supports this vision: Knowledge transfer is seen as a process in which an organization recreates and maintains a complex, causally ambiguous set of routines (i.e. knowledge and experiences) in a new setting (i.e. another com pany, department, divisionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦). Knowledge transfer can be regarded as process which is composed of basic elements. Szulanski (2000) identified them as: source, channel, message, recipient, and context. Obviously, source is the unit from which the message (knowledge) will flow to the recipient by the channel and the whole process will be considered in a particular organizational context which can be fertile (facilitates knowledge transfer) or barren (problems occur with transfer). In the same research he explained several stages of the process of knowledge transfer. The process usually starts by the initiation. Then comes the implementation phase divided into several stages: the initial implementation effort, the ramp-up to satisfactory performance, and subsequent follow-through and evaluation efforts to integrate the practice with other practices of the recipient (Szulanski 2000, p.12) Furthermore, ODell and Grayson (1998) elaborated six steps in the knowledge transfer. Primary the identification of important knowledge is necessary. From this point on it is essential to collect the knowledge systematically and then organize the knowledge. When knowledge has been organized it can be shared (transferred), but before the final stage of usage of knowledge to solve problems, it has to be adapted. A number of conditions of knowledge transfer were presented by Grant and Baden-Fuller (2000). There are three main conditions of knowledge transfer. Firstly, the transmitters knowledge must be capable of being expressed in a communicable form. It is effortlessly done with explicit knowledge, however tacit knowledge has to be made explicit with the help of an expert system or be shared trough process of observation and imitation (p.122). What is more, transferred knowledge must be understandable to the source and the recipient. Therefore both have to use common knowledge which can be expressed in terms of the same language, information technology skills and culture. Finally, the new knowledge transferred from the source to recipient must be capable of aggregation which means that it would be possible to add to already existing knowledge. 4/What factors can influence the transfer of knowledge (positive and negative) Several features may play a substantial role in the process of knowledge transfer. When looking at the literature the most obvious in terms of determinants of knowledge transfer, might be the type of knowledge that is transferred. Explicit knowledge is easy to codify and to transfer. Conversely, a large number of studies, like Grant (1996), report the negative influence of knowledge tacitness on its transfer. In general it is considered that tacit knowledge is very difficult to share because of the complexity of its codification (Reed and DeFillippi, 1990) and organizational embeddedness (Kogut and Zander 1992) and that it contributes to creating ambiguity which can most of the times create barriers to the process of transfer. Simonin (1999, 2004) proposed a model in which knowledge tacitness indirectly influences knowledge transfer through ambiguity; it nevertheless specifies the importance of knowledge tacitness as critical factor which makes knowledge transfer difficult. Academics like Grant (1996), Reed and DeFillippi (1990) and Zander and Kogut (1995) raise the issue of complexity of knowledge. Complexity may appear for example when different kinds of skills and wide range of knowledge (individual, team-based experiences, technologies) have to be shared. The more complex the knowledge, the more difficult it is to share. Reed and DeFillippi (1990) also considered the influence of the specificity on knowledge transfer. The term refers to knowledge which is related only to certain kind of transaction relations. Williamson (1999) defined specificity as the ease with which an asset can be redeployed to alternative uses and by alternative users without loss of productive value. From these studies it is now clear that tacitness, complexity and specificity impedes to knowledge transfer by creating ambiguity. According to Simonin (1999) tacitness has the greatest influence in this relationship, followed by specificity, which is much less significant and finally complexity. It seems that culture and willingness to share, elements often cited as factors that can influence knowledge transfer, are interrelated. Willingness to share is one of the key determinants of knowledge transfer; this means that one must be willing to share and the other one to receive. It is not always easy to let go from knowledge. As Bernstein (2000) suggests that willingness to share is influenced by identity because an individual might have a psychological ownership over the knowledge he possesses. Furthermore, Alavi and Leidner (1999) made a good remark about the fact that it will be difficult for organizations to share knowledge and integrate knowledge-based systems without primary having the information sharing culture (i.e. valuing information sharing). Davenport (1997) describes this as open versus closed culture. Very similar to the concept of willingness to share, Szulanski (1996, p.12) argued that lack of motivation also has to be considered as one of the barriers to the process of knowledge transfer because it may result in procrastination, passivity, feigned acceptance, sabotage, or outright rejection in the implementation and use of new knowledge. Szulanski (1996) also noticed another barrier of knowledge transfer. Absorptive capacity is one of the very well known elements that influence the transfer of knowledge. It is the ability to exploit outside sources of knowledge (Cohen Levinthal, 1990, p. 128) and integrate it by replacing old practices by new ones, which is not always effortless (Glaser, Abelson, Garrison, 1983). Chapter 3: Particularities of strategic alliances shaping the process of knowledge transfer Combining resources is the logical response to the harshness of nowadays competition. Other factors as the increase in customers expectations and the less strict regulatory barriers also led companies to form alliances (Gomes-Casseres 1994; Harrigan 1988; Kogut 1988; Nielsen 1988). However these are not the only possibilities alliances are able to provide. Alliances can be considered as one of the means for knowledge gaining and sharing, besides mergers and acquisitions. According to Inkpen (2000) there exist several possibilities for companies to transfer and gain knowledge: internalization within the firm, market contracts, and relational contracts. He considers individual strategic alliances as relational contracts that permit knowledge acquisition and transfer, suitable in the context where knowledge is complex and hard to codify, whereas market based transfers are considered to be more efficient for product related (embodied) knowledge. Number of other researchers also supported the fact that alliances permit firms to share knowledge and ultimately to learn from the partners (Grant, 1996; Hamel, 1991; Khanna et al., 1998; Kogut, 1998). Inkpen (2000, p.1019) wrote: Through the shared execution of the alliance task, mutual interdependence and problem solving , and observation of alliance activities and outcomes, firms can learn from their partners. 1/ Definition strategic alliance In the literature it is possible to find several key characteristics of an alliance. An alliance is usually created between two or more firms that cooperate together in order to achieve some strategic objective, create value that they would not be able to achieve on their own (Borys and Jemison, 1989) and pursue a set of goals (Harrigan 1988; Yoshino and Rangan 1995). Partners are complementary and contribute with their resources and capabilities (Teece, 1992); they are involved in a range of interdependent activities (Contractor and Lorange 1988>2002) and share benefits and risks of the alliance. Dussauge et al. (2000, p.99) described an alliance between two Knowledge Based Enterprises as: an arrangement between two or more independent companies that choose to carry out a project or operate in a specific business area by co-coordinating the necessary skills and resources jointly rather than either operating alone or merging their operations. Some academics consider alliances to be arrangements in which firms establish exchange relationship without joint ownership being considered as a form of alliance (Dickson Weaver, 1997); others consider equity alliances such as joint ventures, also be a form of alliance (Mowery et al. 1996). In this research all possible forms of alliances are considered: a non-equity alliance (co-operation without creation of new organization or exchange of equity); an equity alliance (unilateral or bilateral equity holding among partners without creation of the a new firm); a joint venture (new firm is created, involving joint resources, where partners share ownership and control) 2/ Why strategic alliance can be considered (by certain researchers) the most appropriate form of collaboration for knowledge transfer? Accordingly, of all approaches to knowledge imitability between a knowledge holder and a knowledge seeker, strategic alliances constitute perhaps the most adequate, but nevertheless challenging vehicle for internalizing the others competency Simonin (1999, 595). There are several forms of interorganizational exchange that enable firms to protect valuable resources including mergers and acquisitions, licensing and alliances (Coff, 1997). There are two kinds of knowledge explicit and tacit (Polanyi, 1966), therefore if two firms share knowledge, it will be explicit explicit, explicit tacit or tacit tacit. Licensing can provide a solution for the first two combinations. Yet, it is very hard to gain competitive advantage with explicit knowledge resources, because they might be sold to other companies. By contrast, competitive advantage occurs when tacit knowledge assets are combined, provided their ambiguity, complexity and inimitability (Barney 1991; Dierickx and Cool 1989). This is done through alliances or mergers and acquisitions. Conventional sale contracts, markets, mergers and acquisitions seem to be less attractive structures for knowledge transfer in comparison with alliances. Coff (1997) found that it is not easy to evaluate the value of knowledge based resources, primary because of their tacitness (Mowery, 1983; Pisano, 1990). Firms that want to acquire new knowledge will have to face uncertainty concerning its characteristics and difficulties to determine its quality and to be certain of the transferability of the knowledge held by another firm. Some researchers raise a concern about the fact that in some cases the firm that will acquire knowledge is not certain to be able to deploy it (Flamholtz and Coff 1994; Haspeslagh and Jemison 1991; Polanyi 1966; Zander and Kogut 1995). In this sense, alliance permits to mitigate risks of bad investments. The indigestibility problem of MA, quite the opposite of alliances, was discussed by several academics (Hennart and Reddy, 1997; Inkpen and Beamish, 1997; Dunning, 1997). Indigestible assets are those who come with valuable assets during the transaction (Nonaka 1994). In fact, for some of these assets (in this case knowledge) the aftermarket may not exist after the acquisition. Within an alliance the company does not have to pay for digestion of non-valuable assets and has access to important knowledge resources held by the partner. Reid, Bussiere, Greenaway 2001 (alliance formation issues) Grant and Baden-Fuller (2004) identified some advantages of alliances related to knowledge like possibility to achieve early-mover advantage and risk spreading. Early-mover advantage signifies recombining knowledge into innovative products in a quickly advancing knowledge environment. More precisely, this means to quickly identify, access, and integrate across new knowledge combinations. In this situation strategic alliances enable company to quickly access knowledge necessary for introduction of new products to market. Grant and Baden-Fuller (2004) wrote: The greater the benefits of early-mover advantage in technologically-dynamic environments, the greater the propensity for firms to establish interfirm collaborative arrangements in order to access new knowledge. A risk exists in terms that sometimes a company might be uncertain about the future knowledge requirements and knowledge acquisition and integration takes time, the investments are risky (Grant and Baden-Fuller, 2004): The greater the uncertainty as to the future knowledge requirements of a firms product range, the greater its propensity to engage in interfirm collaborations as a means of accessing and integrating additional knowledge. Powell (1987) also noticed that alliance formation diminishes the risk that knowledge will dissipate quickly. 3/ Which characteristics and capabilities of alliance partners can ameliorate the transfer of knowledge? Before considering the transfer of knowledge, it is important to underline, that both partners of an alliance are expected to possess valuable knowledge (Eisenhardt and Schoonhoven 1996). Ahuja (2000) considered such knowledge possession as opportunity for linkage-formation. He also identified three categories of valuable knowledge assets that are: technical capital (capability to create new products, technology and processes), commercial capital (supporting resources) and social capital (useful networks). Throughout the literature it is possible to distinguish some capabilities that are important for proper functioning of the knowledge based alliance: absorptive capacity, combinative capability, experience with alliances, suitable design for knowledge exchange, and choice of alliance structure. In numerous studies, absorptive capacity plays an essential role in the process of knowledge transfer and learning within strategic alliances (Lane and Lubatkin, 1998). Van den Bosch et al. (1999) wrote that it combined the evaluation, acquisition integration and commercial utilization of knowledge obtained from sources exogenous to the firm. Absorptive capacity is susceptible to evolve and augment through activity (Barringer and Harrison, 2000) because it is historical and path dependent in nature as was defined by Cohen and Levinthal (1990). Grant (1996) recognized that knowledge absorption capability can be influenced by: the degree to which the expert knowledge held by organizational members is utilized; the width of specialized knowledge required from firm members; the degree to which a capability can access additional knowledge and reconfigure existing knowledge. Defined by Kogut and Zander (1992) combinative capability refers to the ability of the parties of an alliance to extend, interpret, apply, current and acquired knowledge with the goal of generating new applications from existing knowledge base. Collaborative know-how affects firms ability to form a successful partnership and create a solid ground for knowledge transfer. Simonin (1997) refers to it as to ability to institutionalize organizational routines as a result of previous experiences. Pennings et al. (1994) supports that firms tend to reproduce the behavior from their past experiences. When firms have previous experiences of collaboration within alliance, they acquire knowledge that helps them to effectively design future alliances (Lyles, 1988) and develop superior capabilities at managing particular organizational forms such as alliances (Kale et al., 2002, p. 748). This experience permits avoiding various difficulties (Doz, 1996; Powell et al., 1996). Teece (2000) stressed the importance of the design of the firm to enhance performance and knowledge sharing. He identified distinctive characteristics of design in successful firms. Among these, entrepreneurial orientation and flexibility expressed in rapid responses to ephemeral market opportunities flexible boundaries (outsourcing and alliances). They were also characterized by their non-bureaucratic decision making and rapid internal knowledge sharing owing to the not really strict hierarchies. The choice of alliance structure should be determined considering the perspective of gaining valuable resources (knowledge) from a partner without losing its own (Das and Teng, 2000). Different views exist as to effectiveness of equity joint venture form of alliance for successful knowledge transfer. Several researchers find that this form is the most suitable for the transfer of tacit knowledge and complex capabilities (Kogut, 1988, Mowery et al., 1996). However, Das and Teng (2000) think that this structure is too risky for partnership based on knowledge-based contribution, and that it is more suitable for contributing property-based resources. Inkpen (2002) identifies five categories of antecedents of alliance learning: learning partner characteristics; teaching partner characteristics; knowledge characteristics; relationship factors; and alliance form. Two key characteristics of the learning partner, identified by Nielsen and Nielsen (2009), are important, namely collaborative know-how (same as previous experience of alliances) and knowledge protectiveness (Simonin, 1997, 1999). Protectiveness matches the concept of openness and the degree to which partners are protective of their knowledge. How well do the support the risk of knowledge leakage or spillover (Inkpen, 2000). Chapter 4: potential strategies and behavior that parties of the strategic alliance might adopt to enhance the transfer of knowledge and to cope with difficulties alliances might face Strategic alliances might face a number of difficulties. The first thing that comes out from the numerous literature on strategic alliance and knowledge sharing, is the fear of knowledge spillovers, that are assumed to be inevitable consequence of alliance involvement, despite the efforts companies make in order to protect their valuable knowledge assets (Inkpen, 2000). Therefore, it immediately comes to the issue of trust. In the late 90 a discussion was raised about the possibility that some firms use strategic alliance as a Trojan Horse in order to steal knowledge from its partners. This was especially thought about Japanese partners. However empirical studies do not find support for this hypothesis (Hennart et al. 1999; Mowery 1996). The literature elaborates on so called learning races (Khanna et al. 1998) when one partner (acts opportunistically) tries to gain more knowledge in the alliance exchange, than he shares. Hamel (1991, 86) described alliances as transitional devices where the primary objective was the internalization of partner skills. This creates a significant challenge for strategic alliance. To deal with with this issue, norms and systems can be designed; functional rules can be developed to structure partner engagement (QuÃÆ' ©lin, 1997). When little trust is involved, this may lead to knowledge protectiveness from one or both of the partners. Nielsen and Nielsen (2009) wrote that protectiveness not only may lead to uncertainty and conflict but it also reduces the amount of information exchanged.